Animal Cognition

<body topmargin=0 leftmargin=0 marginheight=0 marginwidth=0> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 border=0><tr> <td valign="top" colspan=2 height=140 BGCOLOR="#9966CC" TEXT="#080000" bgproperties="fixed" background="04100a20ezthtv.gif"> <div> <A HREF="index.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Kings Psychology Network"><U><B>home</B></U></A><B>     |     </B><FONT SIZE="5" COLOR="#000099" FACE="Papyrus" ><I><B>King's Psychology Network</B></I></FONT></div> <div> <A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U>Lessons & Handouts</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id154.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Handouts"><U>Handouts</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id29.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Overview of Psychological Science"><U>Overview of Psychological Science</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id19.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="History of Psychology"><U>History of Psychology</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id46.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Psychohistory: St. Thomas Aquinas"><U>Psychohistory: St. Thomas Aquinas</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id36.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="The Enteric Nervous System: The Brain in"><U>The Enteric Nervous System: The Brain in the Gut</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id42.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="The Role of Evolutionary Theory in Descr"><U>The Role of Evolutionary Theory in Describing Sexual Behavior</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id177.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Work Motivation"><U>Work Motivation</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id178.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="EmotionExercise Physical Arousal"><U>Emotion-Exercise & Physical Arousal</U></A>   |   <B>Animal Cognition</B>   |   <A HREF="id159.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Personality Theories"><U>Personality Theories</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id201.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Meditation"><U>Meditation</U></A>   |   <A HREF="id224.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="WaterBenefits Effects"><U>Water-Benefits & Effects</U></A></div> <div> <B>Animal Cognition</B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> </div> </td> </tr><tr> <td valign="top" width=210 BGCOLOR="#CCFF66" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <B>Back To:</B></div> <div> <A HREF="id18.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Course Syllabus PSY 200"><U><B>Course Syllabus-Psy 20</B></U></A><B>0</B></div> <div> <A HREF="id53.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Overview of Class SchedulePsy 200"><U><B>Class Schedule-Psy 20</B></U></A><B>0</B></div> <div> <A HREF="id32.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Lessons Handouts"><U><B>Lessons & Handouts - Psy 2</B></U></A><B>00</B></div> <div> <A HREF="id23.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Related Learning Links"><U><B>Related Learning Links - Psy 20</B></U></A><B>0</B></div> <div> <A HREF="id234.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Related ReadingsPsy 200"><U><B>Related Readings-PSY 200</B></U></A></div> <div> <A HREF="id60.htm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="Discussion Forum"><U><B>Discussion Forum - Psy 20</B></U></A><B>0</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG SRC="489adbd0.gif" border=0 width="173" height="189" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Sue Savage-Rumbaugh & Kanzi, Language Research Center, Georgia State University</div> <div> <B><IMG SRC="488a9d20.jpg" border=0 width="169" height="210" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></B></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Rob Shumaker, Director, Orang-utan Language Project, Think Tank, National Zoo, Smithsonian Institution, speaking at NVCC-Loudoun, Psychology Fair, Spring 2001</div> <bR> <div> <IMG SRC="0618f450.jpg" border=0 width="143" height="325" ALIGN="BOTTOM" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"></div> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> Irene Pepperberg speaking at the National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology January 2001, St. Petersburg Beach, Fl</div> <bR> </td> <td valign="top" height=340 BGCOLOR="#CCFF66" TEXT="#080000"> <div> <B>Historical Overview of the Study of Animal Cognition</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>Early Pioneers</B></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Charles Darwin (1871) - the first person to suggest the possible continuity of cognitive processes </div> <div>       among different species. ( See Darwin, C. (1871), <I>The descent of man and selection in relation to</I> </div> <div> <I>      sex.</I>  London: Murray.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Darwin, “The difference in mind between man and the higher animals; great as it is, </div> <div>       certainly is one of degree and not of kind” (Darwin, 1871, p.128).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The mechanisms responsible for evolution shaped not only a species’ anatomical characteristics</div> <div>       but also its psychological traits, called “mental faculties” by Darwin.  He referred to “faculties” as </div> <div>       curiosity, imitation, attention, memory, and reasoning. (Vauclair, 1996, p.2).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Even though Darwin accepted the existence of “beliefs” in animal species equivalent to those found</div> <div>       in humans, he remained cautious about attributing language and consciousness to any higher-order</div> <div>       nonhuman species. (Vauclair, 1996, p.2.)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Nevertheless, he considered that some elements of language were already present in animal </div> <div>       communication (bird songs and primate vocalizations) and that those elements, when combined </div> <div>       with novel mental abilities, would inevitably lead to human language. (Vauclair, 1996, p.2).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Because Rene Descartes believed animals to be machines, Darwin’s emphasis on continuity </div> <div>       among all species brought some “humanity” back to the animals.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">More important, his ideas have made the study of animal behavior an essential tool for understanding </div> <div>       human behavior.  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Vauclair (1996): “In effect, if one accepts that the human species is the product of </div> <div>       some ancestral nonhuman forms, then the study of animals’ mental functions becomes indispensable</div> <div>       for understanding the biological precursors of the human mind. (P.2).</div> <div>      </div> <bR> <div> <B><U>George Romanes</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He placed animal mental functions within the context of learning abilities.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Romanes, an organism can make novel adjustments or change old adaptations as a </div> <div>       result of its experience.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He was the first to investigate systematically the comparative psychology of intelligence using an </div> <div>       anecdotal method.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">This interest in learning capacities was further developed by other comparative psychologists, </div> <div>       including Morgan (1894), Loeb (1900), Washburn (1908), Jennings (1906), Thorndike (1911), </div> <div>       and Yerkes (1911).</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>C.L. Morgan</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Wrote a book on:<B> The animal mind.</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Warned against the danger of interpreting an action by reference to a higher mental faculty when it might</div> <div>       be explained by a lower-order schema.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Wrote about observations made on his dog when his dog learned to lift the latch of the garden gate</div> <div>       and let himself out.  Attempted to outline the process or steps leading to an “intelligent” behavior.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Ivan Pavlov</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Discovered the conditioned response.  We use the term “Classical Conditioning.”</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Also winner of the 1904 Nobel Laureate in Medicine in recognition of his work on the physiology of </div> <div>       digestion, “through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged.”   </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">(1849-1936).  Born in Ryazan Russia. Studied medicine at St. Petersburg (Russia).  Affiliated with the </div> <div>       Institute of Experimental Medicine and the Military Medical Academy (St. Petersburg).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Worked on the physiology of circulation and digestion.  Definitive work and lectures on conditioned reflexes.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Edward L. Thorndike</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Conducted the first empirical and theoretical analyses of animal learning. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Pioneered the use of “puzzle boxes” and “mazes” to study species such as rabbits, cats, and rats.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He was a psychologist, born in Williamsburg, MA. Studied at Wesleyan University and Harvard. </div> <div>       Taught at Teachers College at Columbia University, where he worked on educational psychology </div> <div>       and the psychology of animal learning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">As a result of studying animal intelligence, he formulated his famous “law of effect,” which states </div> <div>       that a given behavior is learned by trial- and- error, and is more likely to occur if its consequences </div> <div>       are satisfying.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">His works include <B>Psychology of learning</B> (1914) and<B> The measurement of intelligence </B>(1926).</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Robert Mearns Yerkes</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">1876-1956.  American psychobiologist, noted for his studies of the anthropoid apes.  He was an </div> <div>       authority on experimental primate psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Born in Pennsylvania and educated at Ursinus College and Harvard University.       </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Taught at Harvard (1902-1917) and the University of Minnesota (1917-1919). Yale University (1924-1944).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Was in charge of psychological testing for the armed forces during WWI.  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Was chairman of the research information service of the National Research Council until 1924.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In 1929, Yerkes organized the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology, Inc., at Orange Park, Florida.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He wrote : <B>The mental life of monkeys and apes </B>(1916); <B>The mind of a Gorilla</B> (1927); and <B>Chimpanzees: </B></div> <div> <B>      A laboratory colony</B> (1943).</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Wolfgang Kohler</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Developed first cognitive analysis of learning in animals.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A psychologist trained at the University of Berlin.  Was working at a primate research facility maintained</div> <div>       by the Prussian Academy of Sciences on Tenerife in the Canary Islands when the WWI broke out.  </div> <div>       Marooned there, he had at his disposal a large outdoor pen and nine chimpanzees of various ages.  </div> <div>       The pen, described by Kohler as a playground, was provided with a variety of objects, including boxes, </div> <div>       poles, and sticks, with which the primates could experiment.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Kohler set the chimps a variety of problems, each of which involved obtaining food that was not</div> <div>       directly accessible.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Kohler discovered that chimpanzees readily find indirect routes to goals when necessary.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>E.C. Tolman</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">1886-1959.  Was the first researcher to prove that rats can plan novel behavior.  Tolman was</div> <div>       the first to discover that rats had the ability to form a “cognitive map” of a maze.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Konrad Lorenz</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Was Austria’s most famous scientist, held doctorates in medicine, zoology and psychology.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Played a key role in the development of the ethological study of animal behavior. Conducted studies </div> <div>       on the organization of individual and group behavior patterns.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Discovered “imprinting” a rapid and nearly irreversible learning process occurring early in life. </div> <div>       He found that young animals become strongly attached to their biological mothers, but that the process </div> <div>       30 hours will usually not imprint.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Imprinting is primarily triggered by visual cues and auditory stimuli. It is cue specific and relies on a </div> <div>       hierarchy of remembered stimuli.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize for his pioneering studies of human and animal behavior, along with</div> <div>       Karl von Frisch and Nikolaas Tinbergen.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Lorenz turned to research in animal behavior shortly after obtaining his medical degree.  </div> <div>       He had become an animal lover as a child, collecting a variety of animals at his expansive boyhood </div> <div>       home outside Vienna.  The collection included fish, dogs, monkeys, insects and especially ducks and geese.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">His first studies was on the social life of birds.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">One of his most controversial publications was the 1966 study, “On Aggression,” in which he </div> <div>       asserted that aggressive impulses are to some degree innate, drawing on analogies between </div> <div>       human and animal behavior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Later best-selling books included: <B>The Eight Deadly Sins of Civilized</B> <B>Humanity,</B> a plea </div> <div>       against overpopulation and environmental destruction; and, <B>The Decay of the Humane</B>, a gloomy look </div> <div>       at humankind’s future which sold 390,000 copies.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Taught at Immanuel Kant University in Koenigsberg and at the University of Vienna.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Died in April 1989 at 85 years.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Karl von Frisch</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">1886-1982.  Austrian zoologist.  Lived in Germany.  Worked at the Zoology Institute at the University</div> <div>       of Munich.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Known for his pioneering work in comparative behavioral psychology, particularly his studies of the</div> <div>       complex communication between insects.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in medicine with Lorenz and Tinbergen.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">An important implication of his work is that behavioral continuity exists between animal communication </div> <div>       and human language. He switched to working on honey bees early in the century.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Nikolaas Tinbergen</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Dutch/British zoologist noted for his studies of animal behavior.  He was born in the Netherlands (Hague).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He shared the Nobel prize with Lorenz and von Frisch for his work in reviving and developing the science</div> <div>       of animal behavior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Began his studies of animal behavior as a child.  Was educated and taught at the Leiden University and </div> <div>       then joined the faculty at the University of Oxford, England.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Published a book The Herring Gull’s World (1960) in which he describes his studies with gulls for which</div> <div>       he is best known, including an examination of food-begging techniques.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">His studies of the display behavior of certain species revealed that such displays result from a state </div> <div>       of conflict between opposing motivations (fight or flee).  He also clarified the evolutionary origins of</div> <div>       many social signals and their subsequent ritualization.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Verd0cc0009500f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="16" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Beatrix Gardner studied under Tinbergen.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>W. H. Furness</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Reported to the American Philosophical Society in 1916 that he had taught an orangutan, the </div> <div>       Asian great ape, to say the words “pap” and “cup.” His orangutan died from a high fever while </div> <div>       saying “papa cup” over and over.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>J.B. Watson</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Watson firmly condemned the studies of early comparative psychologists and their attempts to</div> <div>       describe the life of animals in its totality, including animal consciousness.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Proposed a descriptive approach.  Believed that the study of animal behavior should be limited</div> <div>       to relations between environmental stimulations and reactions of organisms to those stimulations.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>B.F. Skinner</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Originated important ideas about behaviorism and operant conditioning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A major figure in the field of behaviorism and is considered to be the father of operant conditioning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">With pigeons, he developed the ideas of “operant conditioning, “shaping behavior,” and “reinforcement.”    </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Operant conditioning is a term Skinner applied to a process in which learning or behavioral change </div> <div>       takes place as a result of reinforcing (rewarding) the desired behavior and withholding the reward or </div> <div>       actively punishing undesired behaviors.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Examples are teaching a dog new tricks, and rewarding behavior change in mental patients.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Current Pioneers</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Jane Goodall</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Jane has spent more than 35 years studying the ways of chimpanzees in the wild.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She was born in London on April 3, 1934 and grew up on the southern coast of England.  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She began studying chimpanzees in the wild in Gombe, Tanzania in 1960.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She received her doctorate in ethology at Cambridge University.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She founded the Gombe Stream Research Center for the study of chimpanzees and baboons.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In 1975 she established the Jane Goodall Institute for Wildlife Research, Education, and conservation</div> <div>       to promote animal research throughout the world.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She has written many books and articles on her work, including <B>In the</B> <B>Shadow of Man</B> and <B>Reason</B></div> <div> <B>      for Hope: A Spiritual Journey</B>.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Goodall was named Commander of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.  She also received</div> <div>       the prestigious Kyoto Prize in Basic Science and the National Geographical Society’s Hubbard Award </div> <div>       for distinction in research, exploration and discovery.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Dian Fossey</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">1932-1985.  An American zoologist who became the world’s leading authority on the mountain </div> <div>       gorilla. Completed her doctoral work at University of Cambridge in England.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Persuaded by Louis Leakey to study the Gorilla, she established the Karisoke Research Center in 1967 </div> <div>       and began a hermit like existence in Rwanda’s Virunga Mountains, which was one of the last bastions of </div> <div>       the endangered mountain gorilla.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Through patient effort, Fossey was able to observe the animals and accustom them to her presence, and </div> <div>       the data she gathered greatly enlarged contemporary knowledge of the gorilla’s habits, communication,</div> <div>       and social structure.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In 1980, she returned to the U.S. to accept a visiting professorship at  Cornell University.  While teaching, </div> <div>       she completed her book, <B>Gorillas in the Mist (1983).</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She was actively involved in stopping poachers from harming the wild animals.  On December 16, 1985, </div> <div>       her slain body was found near her campsite.  It is assumed she was killed by poachers against whom she </div> <div>       had struggled for so long.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">First she adopted the strategy of sneakingup silently on the gorillas and quietly observing.   Later, though, </div> <div>       she changed her approach by announcing her presence and by imitating their sounds.  After six months </div> <div>       she was able to approach some of the groups as close as thirty feet.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The life of mountain gorillas was recorded in detain by Fossey.  The group is usually a tightly-knit </div> <div>       family consisting of an adult male leader, his adult brother, or nephew, and a few adult females and</div> <div>       their children.  They move and feed together, rarely separated by more than a hundred feet.  The children</div> <div>       are treated very tenderly by even the largest of males.  The adult males are often referred to as </div> <div>       “silverbacks” because the fur on their backs turn gray as they age.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Keith and Catherine Hayes</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In the late 1940s psychologist Keith Hayes and his wife, Catherine, home raised a newborn chimpanzee</div> <div>       named Viki.  After six years of intensive and creative vocal training, Viki could whisper four words: </div> <div>       “mama,” “papa,” “cup,” and “up.”  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">These were all made with a heavy and largely voiceless chimpanzee accent.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Allen and Beatrix Gardner</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Conducted pioneering work and study on the linguistic capabilities of apes.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Used the technique of cross-fostering; that is, raising apes in a natural environment as if they were children.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Best known for the innovation of teaching sign language to cross-fostered chimps which began with</div> <div>       Project Washoe in 1966.  Washoe was taught a form of American Sign Language.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Gardners replicated and extended Project Washoe with four other chimpanzees, Moja, Pili, Tatu</div> <div>       and Dar who lived like human children from birth.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Beatrix died suddenly on June 5, 1995, in Padua, Italy while on a European lecture tour.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">So far the Gardners have only reported main outlines of the extensive records of their 5 subjects.  </div> <div>       They have created more than 35,000 pages of handwritten notes and many hours of film and videotape.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The University of Nevado, Reno has established the UNR Primate Research Fund in her memory.  </div> <div>       Write to UNR Foundation, Beatrix Gardner Memorial Fund, Mailstop 162, Reno, NV 89557.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Roger and Debbie Fouts</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Currently at Central Washington University’s Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute (CHCI).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Roger Fouts is CO-director of the Institute and Professor of Psychology and a Distinguished </div> <div>       Research Professor at CWU.  His background is in experimental psychology and comparative </div> <div>       psychology with a specialty in animal behavior (ethology). He specializes in primate behavior, </div> <div>       particularly chimpanzee behavior.  He has published more than 70 scientific articles and books.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">His famous book on his work over 30 years is<B> Next of Kin</B>, about his work with Washoe.  Fouts also </div> <div>       houses and works with Loulis, Dar, Moja, and Tatu, all originally cross-fostered by Allen and Beatrix Gardner.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Roger and Debbie Founts founded Friends of Washoe, a non-profit organization dedicated to the welfare </div> <div>       of chimpanzees and other fellow animals. In 1992, they founded the Chimpanzee and Human </div> <div>       Communication Institute (CHCI) at CWU.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Recent research at the CHCI has focused on the private signing of the chimpanzees, imaginary play </div> <div>       and signing, chimpanzee to chimpanzee conversations, conversation repair, representational drawing,</div> <div>       and the symbolic representation of spatial relations with ASL signs.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Foutses are beginning a new research direction and will be studying four different free-living </div> <div>       communities of chimpanzees in Africa to record and analyze their behavior for gestural dialects.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/01/science/01chimp.html?_r=0" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/01/scienc"><U><B>Washoe, a Chimp of Many Words, Dies at 42 </B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.king5.com/news/pets-and-animals/Couple-who-directed-CWU-chimpanzee-program-retires-124325284.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.king5.com/news/pets-and-anima"><U><B>Roger and Debbie Fouts retire from their work at Central Washington University</B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>John C. Lilly</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Is a physician and psychoanalyst specializing in biophysics, neurophysiology, electronics, computer </div> <div>       theory, and neuroanatomy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He is inventor of the isolation tank method of exploring consciousness.  This work led him to </div> <div>       interspecies communication research projects between man and dolphin.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Did early controversial work on dolphin’s ability to talk.  Go to his web page to listen to the dolphin </div> <div>       Peter say “hello” at: <A HREF="http://deoxy.org/lilly.htm." TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://deoxy.org/lilly.htm."><U><U>http://deoxy.org/lilly.htm.</U></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Lilly has spent 23 years working with dolphins. He founded the Human/Dolphin Foundation.  His lab is </div> <div>       in the Virgin Islands.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Ken Marten</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Project Delphis is a conservation effort to save wild dolphins, as well as a dolphin behavior and</div> <div>       cognition research project.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Their purpose is to save the dolphins in the ocean from the holocaust they are currently experiencing</div> <div>       by learning everything about their intelligence and sharing these finds with the global public in an effort </div> <div>       to raise their understanding and awareness.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The are located at Sea Life Park in Honolulu, Hawaii where they have an underwater viewing laboratory</div> <div>       and conduct research on perception and self-consciousness.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Ken Marten is the principal investigator at Project Delphis.  He is an experienced animal cognition </div> <div>       researcher and former observer on purse-seine tuna boats.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Louis Herman</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Founded the Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory (KBMML) in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1969.  It</div> <div>       was conceived as a research and educational facility dedicated to the laboratory and field study of</div> <div>       dolphin and whale behavior, including species resident in Hawaiian waters.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">It is the only facility of its kind devoted entirely to the study of dolphin cognition, communication, </div> <div>       and intelligence.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Dolphin Institute was founded in 1993 by Louis Herman and Adam Pack and several friends of the </div> <div>       25 year old Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal lab. It is an evolution of KBMML.  TDI is relocating to a new </div> <div>       site because the Hawaiian government has asked the KBMML to relocate its facilities to another area</div> <div>       to make room for an expansion of Kewalo Basin Park.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Herman is a pioneer in studies of dolphin perception, intelligence, concept formation, and </div> <div>       language competencies.  He also pioneered KBMML’s studies of the social organization and </div> <div>       behavior, migratory habits, mating strategies, and communication systems of North Pacific humpback </div> <div>       whales, in Hawaii and southeast Alaska.  </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Herman is a tenured professor at the University of Hawaii with appointments in Psychology </div> <div>       and Oceanography.  He oversees all operations of the laboratory. </div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>H. Lyn Miles</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">A biocultural anthropologist interested in the evolution of human symbol systems, how cultural processes</div> <div>       interact with language and evolution, and what orangutans can tell us about language and intelligence.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She cross-fostered Chantek and began her work with him at 9 months of age in a trailer on the campus </div> <div>       of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. She taught him the human culture and American Sign</div> <div>       Language. Chantek had a pet squirrel and cat; asked to go for car rides to the lake, park and fast food</div> <div>       restaurants, and even went to the circus.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Chantek has a vocabulary of over 150 signs after several years and comprehends the spoken English</div> <div>       language.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Founded the Chantek Foundation to support cultural research with Chantek, an orangutan that Lyn has </div> <div>       been working with for more than 20 years.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The foundation seeks support to understand the nature of orangutan communicative ability and intelligence,</div> <div>       to foster the development of orangutan and other great ape persons in a primate cultural center and to</div> <div>       promote orangutan conservation through awareness.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In 1986, Project Chantek moved to the Division of Behavioral Biology at the Yerkes Regional Primate</div> <div>       Research Center, and in 1997, Project Chantek moved to Zoo Atlanta where Dr. Miles’ research with </div> <div>       Chantek continues.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Lyn Miles received her PH.D. in Anthropology from the University of Connecticut.  Also did course work </div> <div>       at Yale University and the University of Oklahoma.  She is currently professor of Anthropology at the </div> <div>       University of Tennessee at Chattanooga and Senior Research Fellow at Zoo Atlanta.  She lives in </div> <div>       Atlanta since 1993.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She is coeditor of <I><B>The Mentality of Gorillas and Orangutans.</B></I>  She is currently working on a book,</div> <div>       <I><B>Chantek: The Enculturated Orangutan</B></I>.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She teaches courses in physical anthropology, primate behavior, ape language, and cognitive and linguistic anthropology.</div> <bR> <div>  <B><U>Sally Boysen</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Has been studying primate cognition at Ohio State University for more than 20 years.  She received her</div> <div>       Ph.D. in 1984 from Ohio State.    </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Her current research interests are animal cognition, with particular interest in the acquisition of counting</div> <div>      abilities and numerical competence in nonhuman primates, cognitive development in great apes, </div> <div>      including attribution, self-recognition, and intentional behavior, and social behavior and tool use in </div> <div>      captive lowland gorillas.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She has conducted collaborative research with Gary Berntson on the application of noninvasive psycho</div> <div>       physiological measures to attention and cognition in primates, and cardiac indices of visual and auditory</div> <div>       recognition in the great apes.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She is currently raising money to build a new primate research facility on the Ohio State campus.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Her chimpanzees live in elaborate furnished facilities with chairs and the furnishings of a home or apartment.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Visit this link to read about how OSU shut down Sally Boysen's research center.  This was devastating!</B></div> <div> <B> </B><A HREF="http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2011/06/05/a-life-restarted.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/"><U><B>Click Here.</B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Francine G. “Penny” Patterson</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">For 25 years, Francine Patterson has been communicating with Koko, a gorilla.   She began to study </div> <div>       communication with Koko by means of sign language in 1972.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She received her doctorate in developmental psychology from Stanford University in 1979.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She founded and is President of the Gorilla Foundation which serves as a trust on behalf of Koko </div> <div>       and the other gorillas she works with. Founded in 1976, the Gorilla Foundation promotes study and</div> <div>       preservation of gorillas and other endangered primates.  “Project Koko,” is a primary focus of the </div> <div>       foundation and focuses on gaining insights into the mind of another species through language.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There were originally three gorillas at the Foundation, Koko, Michael and Ndume.  Michael recently </div> <div>       died in April.  Koko is still mourning Michael’s death.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Koko’s and Michael’s art is world renowned. </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The Gorilla Foundation will soon be moving its home to Maui, Hawaii, where ground breaking ceremonies</div> <div>       will take place on October 12, 2000 for the Allan G. Sanford Sanctuary, a unique refuge for these primates.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The sanctuary will be part of the Koko Preserve, which will also encompass the high-tech Koko visitor </div> <div>       center and will allow for live virtual interactions with Koko and observation of her family via virtual viewing</div> <div>       of the sanctuary.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Irene M. Pepperberg</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Works with the parrot, Alex. Interested in avian communication.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Since 1977, Dr. Pepperberg’s studies in Ethology and animal-human communications have provided </div> <div>       insight into the capabilities of parrots to talk and to understand. Interested in interspecies communication </div> <div>       and conceptual behavior.</div> <div>  </div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She currently works with 3 Congo African Grey Parrots.  Alex, the oldest, can count, identify objects, </div> <div>       shapes, colors and materials. Alex also knows the concepts of same and different.  They have now </div> <div>       begun to work with phonics and there is evidence to believe that one day Alex may be able to read.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Pepperberg believes that her work has far reaching implications:</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Studies of avian versus mammalian brain function: Given that the avian brain can process </div> <div>       information in similar ways, Dr. Pepperberg’s procedures may assist clinicians who are </div> <div>       devising programs for brain-damaged humans.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Programs for teaching language to dysfunctional children: Dr. Pepperberg’s training techniques </div> <div>       are being used for developmentally delayed children.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Targeting parrots for wildlife conservation initiatives: If parrots are as intelligent as chimpanzees</div> <div>       and dolphins, shouldn’t we make the same attempts to save them and their habitat as we are </div> <div>       making for these other species?</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Dr. Pepperberg is currently associate professor in the department of ecology and evolutionary biology at</div> <div>       the University of Arizona at Tucson, with a joint appointment in Department of Psychology and an affiliate</div> <div>       in the program in neuroscience.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Frans B. M. De Waal</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Was trained as an ethologist in the European tradition.  He received his Ph.D. from the University of Utrecht </div> <div>       in 1977.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">After a six-year study of the chimpanzee colony at the Arnhem Zoo, he moved to the U.S. in 1981 to work </div> <div>       on other primate species, including bonobos.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He is a research professor at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Candler Professor of </div> <div>       Primate Behavior, Professor of Psychology, and Director of the Living Links Center at Emory University </div> <div>       in Atlanta.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He is a world-renowned primatologist.  He has authored several books, including Chimpanzee Politics</div> <div>       (1982); Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (1996); and </div> <div>       Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape (1997).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He has also published on the sexual habits of Bonobos and their sense of self-esteem.</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Matsuzawa Tetsuro</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Works at the Primate Research Institute at Kyoto University in Japan.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Works with the chimpanzee, Ai.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0"> Uses lexigrams to study language abilities in chimpanzees.  Ai has learned to write the alphabets.</div> <bR> <div>             <B>    </B><FONT SIZE="3" COLOR="#9900FF" FACE="Arial Narrow" ><A HREF="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/video-chimpanzees-have-faster-working-memory-than-humans-according-to-study-8496034.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.independent.co.uk/news/scienc"><U><B>   Video: Chimpanzees have faster working memory than humans, according to study. </B></U></A></FONT></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7124156.stm" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7124156.stm"><U><B>Chimps beat humans in memory test </B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/en/album/the_drawings_by_chimpanzees.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/en/a"><U><B>See Drawings by Ai and her Ape friends</B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/index.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/inde"><U><B>Chimpanzee Ai and Friends: The Studies on the Chimpanzee Mind</B></U></A></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B><U>Rob Shumaker</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Coordinates the Orang utan Language Project (OLP) at the National Zoo’s think tank.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Orangs cross overhead between the Great Ape House and the Think Tank building via tall towers and</div> <div>       long vinyl-covered cables.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Shumaker is teaching the orangs a language composed of abstract symbols.  He also focuses on how</div> <div>       their knowledge of this language will be transferred and possibly taught to other orangs not instructed </div> <div>       by trainers.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The language is a computer based form designed by Shumaker and centered on abstract symbols that</div> <div>       each represents a word.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Words are broken down into seven categories: food, activities (verbs), adjectives, non-food objects, </div> <div>       human names, orang names, and  numbers.  Each category has a distinct exterior shape.  For example,</div> <div>       food items are characterized by rectangles.  Verb activities are defined by diamond shapes.  </div> <bR> <div>                                                                                                                 </div> <div> <B><U>Marc Hauser</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Professor of Psychology at Harvard University in the Department of Psychology. Conducts primate research.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He and his colleagues have found that monkeys such as the cotton-top tamarin can distinguish between</div> <div>       two languages, an ability once thought to be exclusively human.   </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Hauser believes that humans inherited the ability to process speech from ancestors that they have in</div> <div>       common with monkeys and apes.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">He says that monkeys can tell the difference between Dutch and Japanese as easily as human infants.   </div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Sue Savage-Rumbaugh </U></B>    </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Sue Savage-Rumbaugh says that the overarching goal of the research undertaken by her Center was</div> <div>       to develop technologies and teaching strategies designed to facilitate the learning of language by </div> <div>       persons with mental retardation.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">She has worked with a number of chimpanzees and is now working with the Bonobo ape-Kanzi and family.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Kanzi is a lab reared Bonobo and his training has led to his acquisition of linguistic and cognitive</div> <div>       abilities similar to a 2 year old.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Sue Savage-Rumbaugh does her work out of Georgia State University, Language Research Center.  </div> <div>       She is professor of biology and psychology.        </div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Animal Communication and Human Language</B></div> <bR> <div> <B>   </B><B><U>Key Concepts Used to Describe Communication</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Representation</B> is<B> </B> defined as the phenomenon by which an organism structures its knowledge with regard to its environment.  Knowledge implies a support or a substitute in the knower's mind for the object in the external world.  Two types of substitute can be distinguished: internal substitutes (such as indices or images) and external substitutes (such as symbols, signals, or words).</div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Communication</B> consists of exchanges of information between a sender and a receiver using a code of specific signals that usually serve to meet common challenges (reproduction, feeding, protection) and, in group living species, to promote cohesiveness of the group.</div> <bR> <div> <B><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Language</B> is a system that is both communicatory and representational.  It is grounded in a social convention that attributes to certain substitutes (the words) the power to designate the content (objects) of the communication.</div> <bR> <div> <B>   </B><B><U>Piaget's Conception of Language</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Piaget's conception of language is in agreement with the theory of continuity.  For him, language is not a specific entity but a particular aspect of the general capacity for representation: <I>"Language is only one aspect of the symbolic (or semiotic) function.  This function is the ability to represent something by a sign or symbol or another object.  In addition to language the semiotic function includes gestures...deferred imitation...drawing, painting, modeling."</I> (Piaget, 1970, p.45)</div> <bR> <div> <B>  </B><B><U>Other Scientists' Conception of Language</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Rumbaugh describes language as <I>"an infinitely open system of communication"</I> (1977).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Patterson and Linden (1981), some people say that anything an ape can do is not language; of course, if these are the same people who say that language defines us as humans, and an ape can learn sign language, then they are saying that deaf people who use sign language are not human (p.119-120).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Charles Hockett (1960) identifies 13 design features of human language that may in theory be present in any other communicatory system. These are:</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">vocal auditory channel;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Broadcast transmission and directional reception;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">rapid fading (transitoriness);</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">interchangeability: a speaker can reproduce any linguistic message he can understand;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">total feedback: the speaker of a language hears everything of linguistic relevance in what he himself says;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">specialization: sound waves of speech serve only as signals;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">semanticity;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">arbitrariness;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">discreteness;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">displacement;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">productivity;</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">traditional transmission;and</div> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">duality of patterning.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">According to Hockett, features 1 to 5 (vocal auditory channel, broadcast transmission and directional reception, rapid fading, interchangeability and total feedback) are shared by many animal species, among them several birds and most of the mammals; specialization, semanticity, and arbitrariness (features 6-8) can be found in primates only, whereas discreteness and traditional transmission are specific to hominoids.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Hockett believes that the features of displacement, productivity, and duality of patterning appear with human speech only.  Displacement describes the ability to evoke things that are remote in space and time.  Productivity concerns the ability to say things that have never been said before and yet to be understood by other speakers of the language.  Duality of patterning related to the two-level organization of language: words as meaningful or "morphemes" (level 2) are made of meaningless sounds or "phonemes" (level 1).</div> <bR> <bR> <div> Source: Vauclair, Jacques. (1996). <B>Animal cognition: An introduction to modern comparative psychology.</B> Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>The Emotional Lives of Animals</B></div> <div> Excerpts from<B> When elephants weep: The emotional lives of animals</B>, by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson & Susan McCarthy, New York: Delta, 1995)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Animals cry.  At least, they vocalize pain or distress, and in many cases seem to call for help. Most people believe, therefore, that animals can be unhappy and also that they have such primal feelings as happiness, anger, and fear.  The ordinary layperson readily believes their dog, cat, parrot, or horse, feels.  They not only believe it but have constant evidence of it before their eyes. (Masson & McCarthy, 1995, p. xii).</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In his book, <B>The expression of the emotions in man and animals</B>, Charles Darwin dared to imagine a dog's conscious life: <I>"But can we feel sure that an old dog with an excellent memory and some power of imagination, as shown by his dreams never reflects on his past pleasures in the chase? And this would be a form of self-consciousness." </I>Even more evocatively, he asked:<I> "Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion?"</I> He was unafraid to speculate about areas that seemed to require further investigation. (Masson & McCarthy, 1995, p.xvii)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Masson and McCarthy: <I>"A pivotal book in my thinking about animal emotions was Donald Griffin's </I><I><B>The question of animal awareness. </B></I><I>Attacked in many quarters upon its publication in 1976, it discussed the possible intellectual lives of animals and asked whether science was examining issues of their cognition and consciousness fairly.  While Griffin did not explore emotion, he pointed to it as an area that needed investigation.  Convincing and intellectually exciting, it made me want to read a comparable work on animal emotions, but I learned that there was almost no investigation of the emotional lives of animals in the modern scientific literature. (p.xvii)</I></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Why should this be so?  One reason is that scientists, animal behaviorists, zoologists, and ethologists are fearful of being accused of anthropomorphism, a form of scientific blasphemy.  Not only are the emotions of animals not a respectable field of study, the words associated with emotions are not supposed to be applied to them.  Why is it controversial to discuss the inner lives of animals, their emotional capacities, their feelings of joy, disappointment, nostalgia, and sadness? Jane Goodall has recently written of her work with chimpanzees:<I> "When, in the early 1960s,</I></div> <div> <I> I brazenly used such words as 'childhood,' 'adolescence', 'motivation,' 'excitement,' and 'mood,' I was much criticized.    Even worse was my crime of suggesting that chimpanzees had personalities. I was ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman animals and was thus guilty of that worse of ethological sins-anthropomorphism.</I></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Knowing what we feel is one way to judge whether an animal feels something similar, but may not be the only, or even the best way.  Are animals' similarities or differences from humans the only, or even the most important, issue? Surely we can train ourselves to an empathic imaginative sympathy for another species. Taught what to look for in facial features, gestures, postures, behavior, we could learn to be more open and more sensitive.  We need to exercise our imaginative faculties, stretch them beyond where they have already taken us, and observe things we have never been able to see before. (p.xxi)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Field studies show what most lay people have always believed: that animals love and suffer, cry and laugh; their hearts rise up in anticipation and fall in despair.  They are lonely, in love, disappointed, or curious; they look back with nostalgia and anticipate future happiness.  They feel. (p.xxii)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">We will have seen that animals feel anger, fear, love, joy, shame, compassion, and loneliness to a degree that you will not find outside the pages of fiction or fable.  Perhaps this will affect not only the way you think about animals, but how you treat them. The clearer it became to me that animals have deep feelings, the more outraged I grew at the thought of any kind of animal experimentation.  Can we justify these experiments when we know what animals feel as they undergo these tortures? Is it possible to go on eating animals when we know how they suffer? We are horrified when we read, even in fiction, of people who kill other people in order to sell parts of their bodies.  But every day elephants are slaughtered for their tusks, rhinos for their horns, gorillas for their hands.  My hope is that as it begins to dawn on people what feeling creatures these animals are, it will be increasingly difficult to justify these cruel acts. (p.xxiii)</div> <bR> <div> <B>Anthropomorphism</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The greatest obstacle in science to investigating the emotions of other animals has been an inordinate desire to avoid anthropomorphism.  <I><B>Anthropomorphism</B></I> means the ascription of human characteristics-thought, feeling consciousness, and motivation --to the nonhuman.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Science considers anthropomorphism toward animals a grave mistake, even a sin.  It is common in science to </div> <div> speak of "committing" anthropomorphism.  The term originally was religious, referring to the assigning of human form or characteristics to God--the hierarchical error of acting as though the merely human could be divine--hence the connotation of sin. (p.31)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">From the belief that anthropomorphism is a desperate error, a sin or a disease, flow further research taboos, including rules that dictate use of language.  A monkey cannot be angry; it exhibits aggression.  A crane does not feel affection; it displays courtship or parental behavior.  A cheetah is not frightened by a lion; it shows flight behavior.  In keeping with this, de Waal's use of the word "reconciliation" in reference to chimpanzees who come together after a fight has been criticized: Wouldn't it be more objective to say<I> first post-conflict contact</I>"? In the struggle to be objective, this kind of language employs distance and the refusal to identify with another creature's pain. (p.34)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Against this scientific orthodoxy, the biologist Julian Huxley has argued that to imagine oneself into the life of another animal is both scientifically justifiable and productive of knowledge. (p.34)</div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Anthropocentrism</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The real problem underlying many of the criticisms of anthropomorphism is actually <I><B>anthropocentrism</B></I>.  Placing humans at the center of all interpretation, observation, and concern, and dominant men at the center of that, has led to some of the worst errors in science, whether in astronomy, psychology, or animal behavior. (p.42)</div> <bR> <div> <I><IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Anthropocentrism</I> [note: the term is equivalent to ethnocentrism] treats animals as inferior forms of people and denies what they really are.  It reflects a passionate wish to differentiate ourselves from animals, to make animals other, presumably in order to maintain humans at the top of the evolutionary hierarchy and the food chain.  The notion that animals are wholly other from humans, despite our common ancestry, is more irrational than the notion that they are like us. (p.34)</div> <bR> <div> <B>Play</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Joy often expresses itself in play, which many animals indulge in all their lives.  Play seems to be both a sign and a source of joy.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Play is important to animals; and, although it carries risks, since animals can be injured or killed while playing, a variety of evolutionary functions for it have been proposed.  Perhaps it is a form of practice, of learning to perform tasks, or exercises developing social, neurological or physical capacities....Animals can play in complete solitude or in social situations.  Animals also play with objects.  Object play can quickly become social play....Teasing is a form of play....some animals tease conspecifics; they may also tease members of other species....Young animals and sometimes adults commonly wrestle, mockfight, and chase one another.  Animals sometimes find playmates across the barrier of species. Interspecies play is also found in the wild. (PP 124-132)</div> <bR> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> <B>What Does the Future Hold for the Study of Animal Cognition? Some Thoughts from the Pioneers and My Concluding Comments</B></div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Jacques Vauclair (Animal Cognition, 1996)</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Both generalist (Rumbaugh and Pae, 1984) and ecologically oriented investigators (Kamil, 1984) of animal cognition agree that animals in their environment can be described as problem solvers and decision makers. Their common ground is the cognitive dimension of behaviors, which is expressed through the intervention of internalized representations of the environment by a given organism.  In effect, the animal has to solve problems in almost all of its daily activities, from negotiating social exchanges to manipulating inanimate objects.  The decisional aspect of animal cognition is thus similarly present during foraging as well as during social activities, as when an animal must quickly evaluate different elements in order to act appropriately (for example, flight or fight).  In laboratory settings, these decisions are particularly evident in deceptive behaviors and in other forms of dissimulation. (p.168)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">It appears that these global functions are performed by the animal in ways that are basically similar to human performance, that is, through the construction and use of representations of various degrees of schematization and abstraction. (p.169)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">The interpretation of language as a uniquely human trait may be revised if the impetus is put not on apes' abilities to produce equivalents of words, but rather on their competence to comprehend language. (p.169)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">For example, the language comprehension skills of the pygmy chimpanzee Kanzi (at age 8), has been systematically compared to those of a 2 year old child.  Both subjects have been exposed to spoken English and to lexigrams from infancy.  The two subjects are presented with the same sets of 660 novel sentences.  Examples of sentences presented in English are "Put the milk in the water" or "<I>Go get the raisins out of the refrigerator."</I> It emerges from this comparison that the subjects can understand these novel requests with comparable accuracy.  Their respective comprehension of English shows that they have mastered word recursion as well as the ability to reverse word order.  From these data the authors infer that the potential for language comprehension probably preceded the appearance of speech in human evolution.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Several benefits can be expected from giving full membership to animal cognition in the cognitive sciences (which already includes neuroscience, cognitive psychology, philosophy, artificial intelligence, robotics, and linguistics).  The main reason for including the study of animal cognition is that "to reach an integrated view of cognition, both developmental and evolutionary aspects are essential." Animal cognition contributes to the former, and is indeed crucial for the latter. (p.171)</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Moreover, by studying cognitive processes in an ethological perspective, research on animals may shed light on the coupling between a cognitive system and its environment, thus introducing into cognitive science an ecological component that is still lacking. (p.171) </div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">It is possible that the available data from comparative psychology may serve as a bedrock for a possible model of the human past....Further study of animal cognition should continue to help us to understand our own intelligence and its evolution. (p. 172)</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Sue Savage-Rumbaugh (Apes, Language and the Human Mind, 1998)</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Rumbaugh believes we need to get over feeling that we are superior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Language is a funny thing.  We do not think of it as behavior, yet at heart, that is all it really is--another form of behavior; a form that we use to characterize other parts of behavior, but a form that cannot be divorced from the rest of behavior.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">There is nothing special about language, other than what it makes of itself.  Language is a funny thing.  It permits us to think that we know things that indeed we do not know.  It permits us to talk about things rather than to do them and to think we have actually done something by talking rather than by acting.  It permits us to think that by talking in unison, we can come to act in unison--forgetting that the more feeble the link between word and deed the less likely words are to alter deeds.  Should we wish to act in unison, it is far better that we sing than that we speak.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Language is a funny thing.  It permits us to thinks that other species are not able to communicate the purposes or intentions of their actions to one another, not to coordinate their behaviors, not to plan their actions.  It permits us to think this because it permits us to avoid hearing the kind of talking that other species are doing.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Language is a funny thing.  It enables man to  put himself above the beasts simply by the act of saying to himself, "God gave man dominion over all the creatures that walk the land and all the fish that swim in the sea." What if we never said that to ourselves? (Pages 225-227)</div> <bR> <div> <B><U>Roger Fouts (Next of Kin, 1997)</U></B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Roger Fouts believes that animals do have souls based on his many conversations with Washoe over the years.  He also believes that in this society there is a cultural mind set of "insiders" and "outsiders." [Note: Washoe died in 2009.]</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Four decades ago, when we began locking chimpanzees away, we didn't know any better, but today we do.  We know that chimpanzees are not mindless beasts but highly intelligent and inventive beings who have been transmitting complex cultures for millions of years.  They are our evolutionary brothers and sisters.  What are the moral implications of this scientific revelation?</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">It is a recurring fact of human history that we draw moral universes to include those who are like us and to exclude those who are unlike us.  We grant certain rights and liberties to those inside our moral sphere, and we feel free to exploit those who stand outside.  How do we determine who is an "insider" and who is an "outsider?" Historically, these distinctions have been based on bigotry, superstition, religious doctrine, cultural habit, legal precedent, or scientific "evidence"--and sometimes all of the above.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">We like to think of science as the noble pursuit of objective knowledge, always marching forward in service to truth.  But scientists embody the prejudices of their time.  And scientists are far more dangerous than the average bigots because they can pass off ignorance as knowledge, and their "facts" can be used to erect and support moral boundaries.  Unfortunately, as history has shown, when ignorance is married to arrogance the results are usually deadly for those outside a culture's moral universe.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">In short, we are living by a moral code that is based on an arbitrary distinction between insiders and outsiders--in this case, two different species.  This fact should trouble any person who believes that moral principles should be applied rationally and universally.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">For example, we could expand our moral universe to encompass anyone capable of a certain kind of intelligence, self-awareness, family relations, and the capacity to suffer mental anguish.  The fair application of these principles would immediately recognize all the great apes--chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans--as belonging in our moral community because they have demonstrated all of these traits.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Charles Darwin understood this. He believed that our moral sense springs from our "social instinct" to care about others--an instinct we share with other animal species.  At first we care only about those closest to us.  But with time, we show concern for more and more of our fellow creatures.  Our moral progress will not be complete, Darwin said, until we extend our compassion to people of all races, then to the "imbecile, the maimed, and other useless members of society;" and finally, to the members of all species.  It is not surprising that the two practices of his time that Darwin detested more than all others were the enslavement of African Americans and cruelty to animals.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">When Charles Darwin told us that we are related to apes we all woke up to a terrible nightmare: They are us.  And in the hundred years since, we have wiped out millions of chimpanzees in a fury born of denial, arrogance, and self-interest.  This fratricide is almost complete.  And if we do not halt it now, then we will wake up one day soon only to discover that we've destroyed the living link to our own evolutionary past.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Washoe has been a constant reminder to me that humans do not travel upon this earth alone.  For the past six million years, we have been accompanied on our journey by the biological and spiritual kin we call chimpanzees. (Pages. 368-385)</div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/01/science/01chimp.html?_r=0" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/01/scienc"><U><B>Washoe, a Chimp of Many Words, Dies at 42 </B></U></A></div> <bR> <div> <A HREF="http://www.king5.com/news/pets-and-animals/Couple-who-directed-CWU-chimpanzee-program-retires-124325284.html" TARGET="_top" TITLE="http://www.king5.com/news/pets-and-anima"><U><B>Roger and Debbie Fouts retire from their work at Central Washington University</B></U></A></div> <bR> <bR> <div> <B>Epilogue</B></div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">Many would say that all of this gibberish about animal abilities and much of the work poses a utopian model.  As evidenced from the information, pioneers, research and evidence presented in this course, I would say that perhaps it may seem like a utopian model, but it really is not.</div> <bR> <div> <IMG BORDER="0" SRC="Symb075c00b700f0cc006600.gif" HEIGHT="16" WIDTH="24" ALIGN="bottom" HSPACE="0" VSPACE="0">People with greater insights, who could probably be considered to be before their time (or at least more advanced thinkers than the masses of humankind), have been talking about this for at least a century and a half.  We just have to bring people along.</div> <bR> <div> <B>Written and Compiled by Rosalyn M. King.  All Rights Reserved.</B></div> <bR> <DIV ALIGN="LEFT"></DIV> <div> _________________</div> <bR> <div> <B>References     </B>   </div> <bR> <div> Barber, T.X. (1995). <B>The human nature of birds.</B>  New York: St. Martin’s Press.</div> <bR> <div> Bavidge, M. & I. Ground. (1994) <B>Can we understand animal minds?  </B>London: Bristol Classical Press.</div> <bR> <div> Bekoff, M. & Jamieson, D., Eds. (1996).<B>  Readings in Animal Cognition</B>.  MA: MIT Press.</div> <bR> <div> Boysen, S.T. & E. J. Capaldi, Eds. (1993). <B>The Development of Numerical Competence, Animal and Human Models.</B>  New Jersey: Erlbaum.</div> <bR> <div> Byrne, R. (1995). <B>The Thinking ape: Evolutionary origins of intelligence.</B>  Cambridge: Oxford University Press.</div> <bR> <div> Cheney, D.L. & Seyfarth, R.M. (1990).  <B>How monkeys see the world : Inside the mind of another species.</B>  Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</div> <bR> <div> Darwin, C. 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